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Studying arts or humanities at a UK university? You'll likely need to cite MHRA style. The Modern Humanities Research Association has published this guide since 1971, and it's the standard for literature, languages, and cultural studies across Britain and beyond. This guide covers all major components of citing MHRA, common mistakes, and FAQs.
What Is MHRA Style?
MHRA is a footnote-based citation system outlined in the MHRA Style Guide, 4th edition (2024). The full guide is available free online as a PDF. While primarily associated with footnotes and bibliography, MHRA also supports author-date citation for fields that prefer it.
The 4th edition (2024) includes updated guidance for digital sources and now requires DOIs for journal articles.
Footnotes
MHRA uses superscript numbers in the text, with corresponding footnotes at the bottom of each page. Numbers go after punctuation (but before dashes).
In text:
Johnson expresses her disgust at the 'complete breakdown of moral values'.¹
First footnote (full reference):
¹ Mary Johnson, The Decline of Civilization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020), p. 45.
Subsequent footnote (short form):
⁵ Johnson, Decline, p. 72.
For subsequent citations, use the author's surname plus a shortened title (omit subtitles) and page number.
Bibliography Format
Bibliographies list all sources alphabetically by author surname. Use hanging indents.
Books
Johnson, Mary, The Decline of Civilization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020)
Note: Publisher location comes before publisher name, both inside parentheses. No "p." before page numbers in bibliography entries.
Multiple authors:
Beardwell, Ian, and Len Holden, Human Resource Management: A Contemporary Perspective (London: Pitman Publishing, 1994)
Edited volume:
Rye, Gill, and others (eds), Motherhood in Literature and Culture: Interdisciplinary Perspectives from Europe (London: Routledge, 2017)
Use "and others" for four or more authors/editors.
Journal Articles
The 4th edition requires DOIs for journal articles:
Smith, Christopher, 'Humanities in the Future', Digital Humanities Quarterly, 15.2 (2021), 24-45, doi:10.xxxxx
Format: Author, 'Title', Journal, Volume.Issue (Year), Pages, DOI.
Note the format for volume and issue: 15.2 (not Vol. 15, No. 2).
Book Chapters
Colin, Audrey, 'Human Resource Management in Context', in Human Resource Management: A Contemporary Perspective, ed. by Ian Beardwell and Len Holden (London: Pitman Publishing, 1994), pp. 29-68
Use "in" before the book title and "ed. by" (not "edited by" or "eds.").
Websites
Smith, John, 'Article Title', Website Name, 2023 https://www.example.com/article [accessed 15 January 2024]
Note the angle brackets around URLs and square brackets around access date.
Citing Literary Texts
When analyzing a primary literary text throughout your essay, give a full footnote on first mention, then use parenthetical references:
First mention (footnote):
¹ Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, Frankenstein, or, The Modern Prometheus, ed. by Maurice Hindle, rev. edn (London: Penguin, 2003), p. 7. Further references are given in the text.
Subsequent references (in text):
Captain Walton's instinctive pity for Victor, 'the most poignant grief' he feels (p. 18), is in stark contrast to Victor's reaction...
This avoids cluttering your essay with repetitive footnotes for the same work.
Quotations
Short quotations (under 40 words): Use single quotation marks, integrated into your sentence.
Long quotations (40+ words): Indent as a block quote, no quotation marks, with a line space above and below.
Quotations within quotations: Use double quotation marks inside single ones.
Key MHRA Conventions
- Single quotation marks. MHRA uses 'single quotes' for titles and quotations (British convention), with "double quotes" for quotes within quotes.
- Edition abbreviations. Write "2nd edn" not "2nd ed." or "second edition."
- "ed. by" not "edited by." Similarly, use "trans. by" for translations.
- Page abbreviations. Use "p." and "pp." in footnotes, but omit in bibliographies.
- Comma before date. Unlike some styles, MHRA places a comma before the year: (London: Penguin, 2020).
- Possessives. All names form possessives with apostrophe-s: "Williams's argument" not "Williams' argument."
Short Citations
After the first full citation, use shortened forms:
⁵ Johnson, Decline, p. 72.
Or for immediately preceding source:
⁶ Ibid., p. 45.
Use "Ibid." only when citing the exact same source as the previous footnote.
MHRA vs Chicago
| Feature | MHRA | Chicago |
|---|---|---|
| Region | UK/Europe | US |
| Quotation marks | Single | Double |
| Edition | 2nd edn | 2nd ed. |
| Editor | ed. by | ed. |
| Publisher format | (Location: Publisher, Year) | (Location: Publisher, Year) |
| DOI requirement | Required (4th ed.) | Recommended |
Who Uses MHRA?
MHRA style is standard for modern languages, literature, cultural studies, and many humanities disciplines at UK and European universities. It's required for all MHRA publications, including Modern Language Review and the Yearbook of English Studies.
